The Internet TESL Journal

Motivation Factors in Language Learning

Makiko Ebata
Digital Hollywood University (Tokyo, Japan)
cocomaki4(at)hotmail.com

Introduction

Motivation in language-learning plays a vital role. It is motivation that produces effective second-language communicators by planting in them the seeds of self-confidence. It also successfully creates learners who continuously engage themselves in learning even after they complete a targeted goal. In order for English instructors to motivate them, a number of methods are needed both in and outside of class. According to Hussin, Maarof, and D’Cruz, “positive self-concept, high self-esteem, positive attitude, clear understanding of the goals for language learning, continuous active participation in the language learning process, the relevance of conductive environment that could contribute to the success of language learning” (2001). They state that six factors influence motivation in language learning: attitudes, beliefs about self, goals, involvement, environmental support, and personal attributes (2001). Above all, three specific elements are strongly believed to build motivation towards language-learning: self-confidence, experiencing success and satisfaction, and good teacher-learner relationships as well as relationships between learners. All three factors are believed to be correlated to each other in the process of motivation development. This paper demonstrates analysis of three factors that have a solid connection with motivation

Investigation of Three Factors

Self-confidence

Self-confidence is the most significant in language-learning. It provides learners with the motivation and energy to become positive about their own learning. It also creates the drive in them to acquire the targeted language, enjoy the learning process, and experience real communication. “At the heart of all learning is a person’s belief in his or her ability to accomplish the task” (Atsuta, 2003). “In general, successful language learners appear to have higher self-esteem than those who are unsuccessful” (Richard-Amato, 2003). Lack of belief in one’s ability hinders him from achieving that task—pursuing a targeted language accomplishment. Moreover, it is widely believed that once students gain self-confidence, it progressively expands, in conjunction with experiencing success and satisfaction as well as good relationships.

Experience of Success and Satisfaction

Experience of success provides students with more power to pursue a new goal. It allows language learners to understand the purpose of trying and have pleasure in communicating with others. Some people might feel successful when they can communicate their thoughts to people; others might feel the sense of success when they complete a challenging task in a targeted language. The feeling of success time and again emerges specifically when he realizes the degree of his improvement and achievement. Some people, on the other hand, appreciate compliments from others. Subrahmanian suggests that external praise for one’s improvement is strongly related to fomenting the sense of success (2001). There is a similarity between the experience of success and satisfaction; the experience of success at all times satisfies people not only in language-learning but also in anything. To make it short, it is strongly believed that the experience of success comes hand in the hand with the sense of satisfaction.

According to Lile, “a student will find it difficult to perform in a stressful environment” (2002). He also mentions that “the lessons must be very simple, yet fun and interesting, with a lot of changes from a writing exercise, to a speaking, listening, back to writing, and so on”. Nunan states that “students need to be able to use the skills taught in the classroom to do things other than those that they had been specifically taught” (1999). This implies that in order for language learners to experience success and become satisfied, it is essential for instructors to create a relaxing learning environment so that students can perform successfully. Moreover, a language class needs to contain a variety of materials and activities focusing on all necessary skills. By encouraging students to practice not only one skill but all, the class will become more challenging and effective.

Good Relationships Among Learners and Between Teacher and Students

According to Hussin, Maarof, and D’Cruz, “teachers need to find creative ways to teach the language and increase the student’s motivation to learn the language and to eventually appreciate the language” (2001). There are a number of methods that English instructors can use to motivate students in class, and instructors should flexibly employ the most suitable method for the class. Furthermore, Kabilan indicated that “Teachers should develop a mutual relationship with their learners” (2000). In order to develop a mutual relationship with their learners, teachers need to understand students who are from different backgrounds, have different interests, future goals, aims for English learning, and most importantly, different personalities. Once they understand them better, teachers are able to apply specific teaching and communicating strategies tailored to each student, thereby creating a trusting relationship between a teacher and student. Once a relationship develops, the classroom will become comfortable and enjoyable enough for students to learn positively from the teacher without any hesitation.
 
Hussin, Maarof, and D’Cruz mention that “what occurs in the language classrooms must be extended beyond the walls of the classroom so that a link is created between what is learned in the classrooms with what occurs outside of the classrooms” (2001). Languages cannot be learned merely in classrooms. Learning a language requires communication in real life situations. Thus, students need to acquire an array of communication skills that they can use with various kinds of people. It is essential that they learn not only how to communicate in the target language but also the background, history, and culture that defines it.

“Students who remain silent in groups of ten or more will contribute actively to discussions when the size of the group is reduced to five or three. Type of communicative task can also influence students’ willingness to speak” (Nunan, 1999). According to Richard-Amato, “In classrooms in which mutual respect is lacking, differing values can lead to conflicts between student and teacher, and between student and peer” (2003). The classroom size and the size of group are to be carefully considered. Language learners tend to feel frightened to make a speech in front of a big group. Thus, teachers need to aid students who need support and encourage them to understand that no one can be as perfect as native speakers. In addition, teachers are required to teach all the students the importance of having respect for one another in a classroom so that each of the students can actively participate in lesson.

Students Voices

I did a survey on motivation using the students in my class. Sixteen college freshmen were interviewed regarding the class contents, materials, and the ideal teacher. Half of them had already experienced studying abroad; the other half had not, but their English abilities were as functional as those of returnees.

More students preferred visual aids for new information and their memorization. This means that when teachers introduce new information, visual aids are necessary for students to grasp main points and details. In addition, the students enjoyed thinking rather than talking and individual studying more than group studying; this proves that even returnees who had more opportunities to participate in group studying abroad feel comfortable with a passive studying style. Furthermore, thinking comes before trial according to the survey. This means that students need to obtain time to use their critical thinking strategy before they actually start trying in language learning.
The students answered the question, “What kind of teacher do you prefer?” like below.

• A teacher who knows how to deal with students, especially teenagers.
• A teacher who does not force ideas on the students.
• A tolerant and responsible teacher with a sense of humor.
• A funny teacher who can be serious when necessary.
• A caring teacher.
• A friendly teacher.
• An active teacher.
• A teacher who can understand what students' expectations are.
• A trustworthy teacher.

Teachers need to acquire what students pursue in teachers in order for students to be motivated in language learning. They certainly have a strong relation with students’ motivation status. It is understood that a teacher’s personality and behavior towards students have a strong influence. In order to produce successful language speakers, teachers should devote themselves to teaching.

Conclusion

Motivation is vital in language learning. It makes language learners positive about their own learning. It also creates the drive in them to acquire the targeted language, enjoy the learning process, and experience real communication. Moreover, experience of success and satisfaction has a strong connection with motivation. By realizing their improvement and achievement, students always gain the feeling of success. In order for language students to become satisfied with a lesson, it is required to produce a stress-free classroom and develop integrated-tasks lesson. It is necessary that there is a trust between a teacher and the students so that much communication in a targeted language is developed.

In conclusion, these three factors: self-confidence, experiencing success and satisfaction, and good teacher-learner relationships as well as relationships between learners, play an essential role in developing language learners’ motivation.

References

• Atsuta, H. (2003). Improving the motivation of unsuccessful learners in the Japanese high school EFL Context. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 476 750.
• Hussin, S., Maarof, N., & D’Cruz, J. (2001). Sustaining an interest in learning English and increasing the motivation to learn English: an enrichment program. The Internet TESL Journal,7 (5). http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Hussin-Motivation/
• Kabilan, M. K. (2000). Creative and critical thinking in language classrooms. The Internet TESL Journal, 6 (6).
• Lile, W. (2002). Motivation in the ESL classroom. The Internet TESL Journal, 8 (1). http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Kabilan-CriticalThinking.html
• Subrahmanian, U. (2001). Helping ESL learners to see their own improvement. The Internet TESL Journal, 7 (4). http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Upendran-Improvement.html

---

The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. XIV, No. 4, April 2008
http://iteslj.org/

---

http://iteslj.org/Articles/Ebata-MotivationFactors.html

The Internet TESL Journal

Motivation in the ESL Classroom

William T. Lile
billylile [at] yahoo.com
Nagoya International Senior High School (Meishodai Fuzoku Koko) (Nagoya, Japan)

Introduction

Motivation is the key to all learning. Lack of motivation is perhaps the biggest obstacle faced by teachers, counselors, school administrators, and parents. Behavioral problems in the classroom often, or always, seem to be linked to the lack of motivation. Ruth Peters states that, "academic achievement is more a product of appropriate placement of priorities and responsible behavior than it is of intelligence." (Peters) Intelligent students are often out-performed by less bright students with high motivation. If a child is motivated enough he/she can accomplish learning of any scale.

Intrinsic Motivation

The main idea of motivation is to capture the child's attention and curiosity and channel their energy towards learning. Intrinsic motivation is motivation from within the student (Lumsden). An intrinsically motivated student studies because he/she wants to study. The material is interesting, challenging and rewarding, and the student receives some kind of satisfaction from learning. I have one such student. She is a senior at my high school. She never misses a homework, is always using her dictionary when a word comes up she doesn't know, and as a result of these kinds of habits she always does well on her tests. One time I just checked to see if the students had their homework done or not, and after class she asked me if she had any mistakes on her homework or not. She prefers tasks that are moderately challenging. She demands more effort from herself and has a need for deep understanding. To have an intrinsically motivated student is the goal of all motivational development.

Extrinsic Motivation

An extrinsically motivated student studies and learns for other reasons. Such a student performs in order to receive a reward, like graduating or passing a test or getting a new shirt from mom, or to avoid a penalty like a failing grade (Lumsden). Here is a description of one of my  extrinsically motivated students. She is a very good student, and actually shows signs of being intrinsically motivated, but in general she is inclined to put forth the minimal effort necessary to get the maximal reward. When I give an assignment in class, she often tries to chat with her friends or fails to get started, but if I say this will be taken up and graded, she is often the first one finished. Her intrinsic motivation shows when the material is of great interest to her, or something she feels strongly about. Also, if I can get her curious about something, without her being distracted, she works hard at it. She performs well, as with many of my students who are extrinsically motivated, if I give her a task where she has control, the task is very clear, and she is involved in the dynamics of the class. It seems that when intrinsic motivation is low or absent, extrinsic motivation must be used. Although extrinsic motivation can, and should, be used with intrinsically motivated students, too. If students aren't given a reward or credit for their efforts, and no feedback is given to the student, then most students' intrinsic motivation would begin to decrease.

Becoming Intrinsically Motivated

There are many ways teachers can help their students become intrinsically motivated. Krashen writes of a mild level of anxiety, or "low affective filter" in the classroom and in the whole learning environment (Cerny). The attitude the student has towards the learning environment, the teacher, the material, and towards him/herself all affect this level of anxiety (Bantjes). A student will find it difficult to perform in a stressful environment.

Proper Instruction

Proper classroom explanation is needed by the teacher, so the students can well understand what is expected of them (Harris). In the ESL classroom this is more apt to create anxiety because the explanations are given in another language that takes even more effort by the students to comprehend than their own language. A well-planned lesson is essential. The teacher must be creative and flexible. Depending on the nature of the class and the students' levels, the dynamics of the class must be appropriate. I teach a first year high school class of 12 boys who are very energetic. I can generally teach at the i+1 level, a little above what they already know. But sometimes when they don't understand, I have to change gears and think of another way as to not lose the energy of the class. I also teach a class of 12 second year boys who are not energetic at all. The lessons must be very simple, yet fun and interesting, with a lot of changes from a writing exercise, to a speaking, a listening, back to writing, and so on, all in the same class. The students' span of attention and levels are lower, so if something is a bit challenging they don't have what it takes to do it. Unlike the first year boys who enjoy challenging materials and will try harder to understand some things on their own. The type of student I am trying to mold is one who, when faced with something he doesn't understand, will say "Hmm, I think I know what he means, I'll give it a try", instead of "I didn't understand, I can't possibly start this on my own."

Achievable, Relevant Material

The material must also be relevant to the students. Try to use vocabulary that the students can relate to and material they would find interesting. With my first year class this is rather difficult because it is an entry-level English class, but I try to introduce relevant material. Another very important part of proper classroom instruction to keep a low affective filter is to keep it simple and structural. I have one student in the second year class who needs constant individual instruction. It's not that he lacks the energy, but simply understands less than the other students. With him I have to keep lesson points simple, slow, and repetitive, usually after the other students have started on the exercise. When he feels the task at hand is achievable, he works diligently towards finishing. When I am introducing a lesson, sometimes I focus on him and keep trying until he understands, then I know the whole class will, too. Through this slow effort I keep his level of anxiety low, and hopes for internal motivation up.

Caring Teacher

Another important aspect of improving the intrinsic motivation of your students is to be a caring teacher. Although guidelines and rules must be set and understood by the students, and if they cross the guidelines a punishment will follow, the teacher must be approachable and understanding (Harris). Students must feel the teacher is genuine and supportive, and the students' values and opinions will be respected (Lumsden).Teachers must be kind and listen fairly to the students, and be patient when they don't understand. I have seen other teachers who run their classes very strictly, almost as a sort of dictator' in class. The teacher gets upset at the students who don't try, when it appears the reason is that they don't understand what is asked of them.
A caring teacher tries to develop a relationship with the students. If the teacher sees potential in all students, and communicates this well to the students, they will in return build a desire to learn and participate. When the students realize that you are not going to get angry, you are being nice and understanding, and the reason you are trying so hard is because it is important to you that your students learn and do well, the natural human reaction is to reciprocate and do something nice in return, in this case, study.
I have had one student that fits this description exactly. She is considered by most teachers to be a problem student. She has many times considered quitting school. Her parents don't seem to care if she quits school. In my class, at first, I tried to get angry with her, and threatened to contact her parents because she was not participating in class. She wanted to sleep in class and would never even pick up her pencil some days. When I would get angry with her, she closed up even more, to the extent of purposely going to the nurse when she was supposed to be in my class, and even stormed out of my class once in anger and went to the nurse. Now, one's initial thought would be that she deserves punishment for such behavior, but she doesn't react to punishment, and her parents aren't very good at punishing her. It would make her happy to be expelled from school. What works best with her is a caring teacher. I explained to her after class one day that there was no need to get angry at me because I am doing this because I think she has the ability and I want her to do well. I told her I don't like to get angry, and that there is a genuine importance to her being in my class, participating, and learning. She is in a class with many high level students, so it difficult to keep her anxiety low. I have to try to convince her that she belongs in that class the same as everyone else. I do this often by pairing her up with another student who needs her answers to complete an exercise. This type of motivation would be considered extrinsic motivation, but any motivation is better than none.

Energy Sells

A teacher's positive energy could lead to the students becoming more motivated. If the students see that the teacher is happy to be in the classroom and excited to teach them, then the students can learn by example. A smile is contagious. Positive attitude is a must for a successful learning atmosphere. To promote self-confidence, it helps if the teacher is self-confident. Positive approval and praise for student efforts is very effective, even if the student is wrong. Let the students know that you're glad they tried and being wrong isn't such a big problem, and the students won't be so reluctant the next time they're called on to participate. Positive energy affirming a belief in the students' ability develops a comfortable atmosphere for the students in the classroom

Parental Awareness

Increased parental awareness is also crucial to a child's motivation (Bantjes). To support motivation, parents must participate actively in the student's life. The same set of goals and practices at school that promote motivation should be followed at home. If they are not also followed at home, it could dilute classroom efforts. Through appropriate parent/teacher/student communication, everyone can understand what is expected from each other, and the student will see that everyone involved cares about his/her academic success.

Conclusion

Motivation is the backbone of any classroom. When the students are motivated, the teacher can perform his/her job the best. A teacher can do a lot to improve the students' motivation, and the effort involved is an essential part of the teaching profession.

Bibliography

• Bantjes, Leon. "Motivation in the Classroom." Engines for Education. 1994. The Institute for the Learning Sciences, Northwestern University.

<http://www.ils.nwu.edu/e-for-e/nodes/NODE-62-pg.html>
• Cerny, Jerry. The Social Studies Web. University of New Orleans College of Education.

<http://ss.uno.edu/ss/teachdevel/Motivat/Motivate.html>
• Richard-Amato, P. Making It Happen, Interaction in the Second Language Classroom. New York: Longman, 1996.
• Harris, Robert. "Some Ideas for Motivating Students." Virtual Salt. 12 March 1991. 30 Sep 2001.

<http://www.virtualsalt.com/motivate.htm>
• Lumsden, Linda S. "Student Motivation to Learn." ERIC Digest Number 92.
• Peter, Ruth. "Overcoming Underachieving." Broadway Books. 2000.
• Robb, Laura. "Whole Language, Whole Learners." William Morrow and Co. 1994.

---

The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VIII, No. 1, January 2002
http://iteslj.org/

---

http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Lile-Motivation.html

Bahaya Tidur Dengan TV Menyala atau Sambil Mendengarkan Musik

Tidur merupakan kebutuhan alami manusia. Dengan tidur yang berkualitas, metabolisme tubuh ditata kembali. Kita juga memiliki kesempatan untuk melakukan regenerasi / mengganti sel-sel tubuh yang mati.

Nah tahukah Anda, bagaimana cara mendapatkan tidur yang baik dan berkualitas? Salah satu caranya adalah dengan memadamkan lampu di waktu tidur normal (9 malam hingga 8 pagi) demi mendapatkan hormon melatonin secara maksimal.
Hormon Melatonin

---

Adalah zat yang dihasilkan oleh kelenjar pineal didalam otak yang pembentukannya dipicu oleh gelap dan berfungsi mengatur bioritme atau irama tubuh dalam hal pengaturan tidur.
Kadarnya paling tinggi ditemukan menjelang pagi hari sekitar jam 02.00 – 04.00 dan paling rendah di sore hari. Ini juga menjawab kenapa orang semakin bertambah usia semakin sedikit tidurnya, karena secara alamiah, produksi hormon melatonin ini juga akan mengalami penurunan, sejalan dengan pertambahan usia manusia.
Penurunan yang drastis biasanya terjadi sekitar usia 40 tahun sehingga dengan menurunnya hormon ini maka kualitas tidurpun akan menurun dan sering berefek pada kesulitan tidur.

Manfaat lain melatonin adalah sebagai anti oksidan yang larut dalam lemak dan air, meningkatkan imun tubuh menimbulkan relaksasi otot dan membantu meningkatkan mood dan menghilangkan ketegangan. Jadi sebaiknya kalau tidur lampu dimatikan agar bisa memaksimalkan produksi melatonin.
Memang, ada sebagian orang yang merasa tidak nyaman, atau bahkan tidak dapat tidur pada kondisi gelap. Namun jika melihat manfaat atau dampaknya, hal ini perlu diperhatikan juga. Antara lain dengan tidak tidur di bawah pencahayaan langsung (dari lampu kamar), terutama bagi anak-anak yang masih dalam masa pertumbuhan.
Matikan Televisi dan Musik

---

Kebiasaan tidur sambil mendengarkan musik, atau menonton televisi sampai tertidur, atau membiarkan lampu di ruangan menyala terang, memang sulit dihilangkan dan menurut sebagian orang kondisi seperti itu membuat mereka menjadi lebih cepat tertidur.

Tetapi pada kenyataannya setelah terbangun mereka merasa lebih tegang (stress). Bahkan ada yang merasa seperti tidak tidur semalaman.
Penjelasannya :
Pada saat kita tidur sebetulnya otak tidak pernah tidur. Otak selalu menjalankan aktivitasnya walaupun tidak sesibuk seperti di saat bangun, yaitu menjalankan sistem metabolisme tubuh.
Pada malam hari, seiring menurunnya aktivitas tubuh, ritme gelombang otak pun mengalami penurunan. Namun apabila kita tidur sambil mendengarkan musik, televisi dalam keadaan hidup atau lampu ruangan sedang menyala terang, maka gelombang suara atau cahaya yang dipancarkan oleh peralatan tersebut tetap diterima oleh indera pendengaran dan penglihatan kita.


Gelombang suara diterima oleh alat pendengaran di dalam telinga dan gelombang cahaya tetap dapat menembus kelopak mata dan diterima oleh retina dan lensa mata. Gelombang-gelombang tersebut akan diteruskan ke otak kita. Otak yang harusnya beristirahat akan kembali terangsang untuk bekerja dan mengolah informasi yang masuk.


Apabila hal ini berlangsung sepanjang malam, berarti kita hanya tidur menurut tubuh luar, tetapi tidak menurut otak. Otak akan terus bekerja mengolah informasi yang masuk tersebut. Jadi jangan biarkan otak Anda kelelahan karena harus tetap bekerja pada malam hari, sedangkan di siang hari otak juga akan diperas oleh kegiatan rutin kita.

Journal Motivate

The Internet TESL Journal

Sustaining an Interest in Learning English and Increasing the Motivation to Learn English: An Enrichment Program

Supyan Hussin, Nooreiny Maarof, and J. V. D'Cruz
supyan [at] pkrisc.cc.ukm.my
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (Malaysia)

This paper was originally presented at The Millennium MICELT 2000, 3rd Malaysia International Conference for English Language Teaching, 15-17 May 2000, Melaka , organized by Universiti Putra Malaysia.A persistent problem faced by many English teachers, especially the non-specialists, is the attempt to sustain genuine interest in continuing to learn English and to use the English language once the examinations are over. Teachers have to create a healthy balance between preparing students for the standardized examinations and for life-long language skills. One solution is to develop a continuous program which includes an integrated in-class and out-of-class language activities that help nurture student language skills. Within the program, an environment, which is rich with language input, is thus provided. The program requires the retraining of in-service teachers who are provided with a framework within which they can apply new techniques in language teaching. The presenters will draw upon their experience in conducting a retraining of 77 teachers in Pahang whereby an enrichment program was introduced. Feedback received from the training group supports the use of enrichment programs, which make use of on-going activities within the school English language curriculum..

Introduction

The famous proverb "Don't give your students fish, but teach them how to fish" is perhaps true in language teaching. But how do we go about teaching them the language skills so that they become more interested in learning the language? Also how do we maintain their interest in language learning when English is not seen as important for their immediate needs other than to pass the examinations?Often, English language teachers who subscribe to the behaviorist approach to language teaching adopt the Audiolingual Method (ALM) or Direct Method which focus on forms and accuracy of the studentsâ output or performance. Thus, many teachers are found drilling the students with continuous grammatical exercises especially at the primary school level. Despite exposure to training in the communicative approach, may teachers still avoid practicing the approach because the communicative component, i.e. oral communication makes up only ten percent of the exam score on the English test. In other words, many teachers are more interested in training students how to read and write well in addition to teaching students to master the grammar component of the language.
Although the drill-and-practice approach has some advantages in language teaching, it however does not help the students to master the language in the long run. Often, we find students who become good test-takers, and yet they are not able to speak and write competently when they graduate from high schools. What is more important is that teachers realize that given an environment (in rural areas) where the English language input is limited and non-conducive to learning the target language, teachers need to find creative ways to teach the language and increase the student's motivation to learn the language and to eventually appreciate the language. Undoubtedly, possessing some knowledge about various language teaching methodologies (e.g. ALM, Direct Method, Grammar-Translation, Suggestopedia, Community language Learning, Natural Approach, Total Physical Reponses, Communicative method) is crucial, but it is more important for teachers to know what the most appropriate approach to teaching the language in that particular environment is and what activities are suitable for a given group of learners.
Based on our general observation of language teaching in schools, at least in the Maran District schools where we conducted our language teaching workshops, teachers tended to ignore the importance of such factors as positive self-concept, high self-esteem, positive attitude, clear understanding of the goals for language learning, continuous active participation in the language learning process, and the relevance of a conducive environment that could contribute to the success of language learning. In most cases, teachers are worried about how to drill the students to obtain high scores on the English paper in the national examination. The problem for many English teachers, especially the non-specialists, is how to encourage genuine interest among students to continue to learn and use the English language once the examinations are over. The question that needs to be addressed is how do teachers create a healthy balance between preparing students for the standardized examinations and for life-long language skills.

Motivation

Gardner and Lambert (1972) introduced the notions of instrumental and integrative motivation. Instrumental motivation refers to the learner's desire to learn a language for utilitarian purposes (such as employment or travel or exam purposes) in the context of language learning. On the other hand, integrative motivation refers to the desire to learn a language to integrate successfully into the target language community. In later research studies, Crookes and Schmidt (1991), and Gardner and Tremblay (1994) explored four other motivational orientations: (a) reason for learning, (b) desire to attain the learning goal, (c) positive attitude toward the learning situation, and (d) effortful behavior.Many theorists and researchers have found that it is important to recognize the construct of motivation not as a single entity but as a multi-factorial one. Oxford and Shearin (1994) analyzed a total of 12 motivational theories or models, including those from socio-psychology, cognitive development, and socio-cultural psychology, and identified six factors that impact motivation in language learning:

• Attitudes (i.e., sentiments toward the learning community and the target language)
• Beliefs about self (i.e., expectancies about one's attitudes to succeed, self-efficacy, and anxiety)
• Goals (perceived clarity and relevance of learning goals as reasons for learning)
• Involvement (i.e., extent to which the learner actively and consciously participates in the language learning process)
• Environmental support (i.e., extent of teacher and peer support, and the integration of cultural and outside-of-class support into learning experience)
• Personal attributes (i.e., aptitude, age, sex, and previous language learning experience)

Based on this brief discussion, we believe that teachers are able to drive the students to learn the language and to sustain studentsâ interest in language learning if they can provide activities that are:

• interrelated between in-class and out-of class language activities
• communicative (game type) integrative (short/small activities form larger activities)
• pleasant, safe and non-threatening
• enthusiastic
• group-based
• meaningful or relevant
• challenging

These activities help promote:

• self-confidence
• experiences of success
• learning satisfaction
• good relationships among learners and between teacher and students

An Enrichment Program

Research has shown that factors such as positive learner and teacher attitudes, which are interrelated to motivation, must be sustained for successful transfer of language learning (Finocchiaro, 1982; Ngeow, 1998). To foster positive attitudes and to motivate learning, in particular, the learning of English as a Second Language, an environment conducive to learning must be created. Factors that help create such an environment include:

• a learning situation that has a "low affective filter" (Krashen, 1987) whereby the learners learn to use the language in a non-threatening and fun environment. Otherwise, learners will feel uncomfortable and insecure which will further induce a "psychological barrier" to communication and learning (Littlewood, 1995)
• providing various types of input which are auditory, visual, sensory, verbal and non-verbal in nature and input which is comprehensible or a little beyond the level of the learner ( i + 1)
• providing a continuous and consistent exposure to the language being learned
• an environment where the teachers and the students are supportive and encouraging
• having access to situations wherein students are able to use the language as a "natural means of communication" (Littlewood, p. 58, 1995)

These factors should be present in any language learning program. The enrichment part of a language curriculum must encompass these factors which encourage successful transfer and learning of the target language.A language enrichment program should not be seen as separate from the school curriculum. Instead, it needs to complement and strengthen the development of language proficiency of students in schools. Therefore, what occurs in the language classrooms must be extended beyond the walls of the classrooms so that a link is created between what is learned in the classrooms with what occurs outside of the classrooms. A healthy balance has to be created between the immediate needs of examinations and the long-term needs of communicative competence. Furthermore, within an enrichment framework other interrelated factors such as the teachersâ philosophy, theories, and experience of the language; the contemporary climate of the teaching situation (which is affected by such factors as the political, economic, and technological advances of the country); the available teaching aids and materials ; and the constant demand to prepare students for the standardized exams all play interconnected roles within the school language curriculum (See Appendix A for a diagram of the framework).
Within the enrichment program, various activities and tasks are prepared which require active participation of the learners. Some examples of such activities include:

• a reading program with such tasks as writing a synopsis, journal, and compiling vocabulary lists
• language immersion projects such as language camps and visits
• a specific day or week or month or time and space devoted to the use of the language such as an English zone, spelling bee competition, story-telling corner, read-to-me corner, essay and drama competition, poetry reading at the general assembly, etc.
• a network of people who could provide the constant input of the language such as pen pals, teacher mentors, conversation partners and so forth

These activities are supported by classroom or school environments that provide simple strategies to encourage the use of the language such as murals, labels in and around the school, consistent exposure to language competitions (choral speaking, scrabble, etc.) and English notice board (interactive in that learners can pose questions or reply to questions). All these need to be given acknowledgment and recognition in the form of rewards and encouragement (e.g. prizes, public mention, etc.) to motivate and sustain interest in the use of the language.It should be pointed out here that the main emphasis of this enrichment program is more on the process of learning rather than the performance of learning. It is hoped that a series of language activities, in-class as well as out-of class, will lead the students to a successful language acquisition process.

A Report on Our Teacher Training Workshops

The purpose of the teacher training workshops was to exchange ideas and experience as well as update teachersâ knowledge and skills on language teaching and learning. Some teachers who have been teaching over a period of time may need to update themselves with the current teaching-learning trend. Some others, especially, the non-trained teachers, lack knowledge, skill, and experience and may still need some general exposure on effective teaching techniques that could be carried out in their schools. The training workshops, involving 77 English teachers from the Maran District, were conducted in Jengka during the school holidays. With the help of the Maran Education District Office, the teachers were selected from several schools to participate in the training workshop.These workshops were initially meant for teachers who were not English majors and those who have taught English for less than two years. The teachers were divided into three groups: primary, lower secondary, and upper secondary. However, because there were not enough teachers who were not English majors, other English teachers were also asked to participate. Table 1 shows the academic background of the teachers and Table 2 depicts the number of years that the teachers had been teaching. A majority had taught for less than 3 years.

Table 1: English Teachers' Academic Qualification

Academic Qualification	Primary N=29	Lower secondary N=23	Upper secondary N=25
English/TESL Degree		11	15
Non-English/TESL degree with Dip. Ed. (English/TESL)		6	4
Non-English/TESL degree		6	4
English/TESL Teaching Certificate	21		2
Non-English/TESL Teaching Certificate	8

Table 2: Years of English Language Teaching Experience

Years	Primary N=29	Lower secondary N=23	Upper secondary N=25
1-3	16	11	14
4-6	6	4	4
7-9	2	2	1
9-11	1	2	3
More than 11	4	4	3

The three workshops, each run consecutively over three days, were fully funded by Lembaga Kemajuan Wilayah Jengka (LKWJ) or the Jengka Development Authority, a governmental body responsible for the welfare and the development of the Jengka district in Pahang. LKWJ has been working hard to raise the educational level and the economic standards of the Jengka settlers. The majority of the settlers in Jengka grow palm oil and rubber trees under the government's Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) scheme.

Contents of the Training Workshops

The overall design of the workshop comprised three main parts.

Part One

The first part consisted of an introductory session whereby the teachers participated in a number of ice-breaking activities, and were provided with an overview of the objectives of the workshop. The purpose of the introduction session was to provide the participants with a sense of purpose and commitment and to allow an opportunity for them to get acquainted with each other. The session was necessary to ensure that all participants were comfortable and were ready to participate in the activities to be conducted. At this initial stage, the teachers were also requested to fill-in a form in which they provided information on their personal and academic background.

Part Two

The second part of the workshop consisted of a session which was designed to expose the teachers to established and current literature on the theoretical content of teaching and learning a language, in particular, content background knowledge on ESL pedagogy. The teachers were asked to answer a written survey on common terminology and concepts related to ESL teaching and learning. For instance, they were asked to put a check against words and phrases in a list that they had heard of or had encountered before or ones they thought they could explain such as "Monitor theory, ESP, ESL, Audiolingual method, i + 1, choral speaking, Piaget, interlanguage " and so forth. This activity served as an advance organizer to understand the content knowledge that was provided later in the session. A facilitator presented information and content which included an overview of the current status of English within the Malaysian context and its interrelationship with contemporary changes and advances in the political, economic and technological climate in Malaysia and in the world in general. For instance, the teachers were made aware of the role of English as a world language and its significance to Malaysia's Multimedia Super Corridor project and how as English teachers they play a crucial role in ensuring the success of the project. They were further reminded of the Malaysian National Philosophy of Education and were provided with information and problems on issues related to English language teaching. In addition, theoretical background on the various approaches and syllabi, methodology, factors affecting ESL learning and the processes of language acquisition and learning were explicated. Teachers were encouraged to discuss this in groups and then presented their views and solutions to the problems posed. A discussion of possible strategies and approaches in integrating an enrichment program within an examination-oriented curriculum were conducted before they were introduced to the suggested enrichment program framework and the theoretical underpinnings of the approach.The teachers were later introduced to a variety of in-class activities and out-of-class activities that form part of the enrichment program. The teachers had to actually participate in each activity to help raise their awareness and foster empathy for students. A sample of the activities included:

• jig-saw reading
• interpreting cultural bias (use of cartoon strips and a colloquial variety of English and idioms)
• jig-saw listening
• shared journal writing
• song cloze and punctuation exercises using songs
• the use of English jokes and tasks using the different shades of meanings of words
• vocabulary building tasks
• a chain story activity
• a visual expression of the self (using symbols and analogies to describe teachers and students) activity
• a "create an advertisement" group activity using materials found in the home

The participants carried out the activities in small groups and were later required to present some of the products of the activities to the whole group. Open discussions and comments were encouraged. At the end of the activities, the teachers were asked to reflect on the activities in which they participated and to comment on their feelings and reactions as an individual teacher and alternatively as a student. The teachers were provided with references on books and other materials to which they could refer for more creative ideas on language learning tasks and activities (for example, Gaudart's "Reaching out to Learners: Creative Ideas for Teaching English")The teachers' participation in the activities helped make them realize that English language learning can be interesting and fun using simple and useful tasks and activities that could be incorporated within any English language lesson. The teachers were also made aware that even within an examination-oriented syllabus, such tasks and activities could be injected into the routine of "drill and practice" for the examination. Students require a break from the monotony of examination-format exercises through short, fun-filled activities which at the same time help reinforce items learned in the drill practice sessions. The in-class and out-of-class activities have to be related and continuous. For example, in practicing grammatical items in role-plays, students can be further encouraged to use the language learned in a drama or short skit presented as part of the school's teachers' day celebration. Poems created in class activities could be read at the school's general assembly.
The participants were also provided with general information about language learning and teaching such as the myths about the skills of reading and writing, what teachers think are their "persona" as a teacher, poems on being a teacher, a student and roles of an ESL teacher. The teachers devoted some time to reflect on some of the issues raised about their roles and their professional development.

Part Three

The third part of the workshop involved a series of presentations by the facilitators on guidelines and tips on how to assist students in preparation for the examinations. This session was requested by the organizers for they wanted the teachers to be further exposed to various test-taking strategies and techniques which could help the teachers manage the preparation of students for the standardized examinations. A brief session of reviewing sample examination papers and strategies in approaching the various test techniques on the papers were conducted. However, the final activity conducted was a session whereby the teachers reflected upon the ideas and concepts found within the visual representations (the drawings that showed what a teacher stands for) and symbols they had drawn in the beginning of the workshop and compared each one to the one they drew at the end of the three sessions. It was a revealing and enlightening discovery for many of them. A majority had shifted their view on the roles of teachers and students from being teacher-centered to one which is more student-centered and humanistic. Based on feedback at the end of the workshop (an evaluation form), the teachers seemed convinced to a certain extent that simple and short activities, both in-class and out-of-class, are worth attempting even within a serious exam-oriented syllabus.

Conclusion

Teaching a second language to students in rural areas remains a great challenge because performance in exams in considered more important than for other purposes. It requires not only courageous, well-determined, and committed teachers but also creative and innovative teaching techniques. Teachers have to find practical ways to motivate the students to learn and appreciate the language, and at the same time, sustain studentsâ interest in the language learning process. The framework of the enrichment program that we suggest here recognizes motivation as a crucial factor which interacts with other factors involved in language learning process. Hence, if continuous, interrelated, and meaningful activities, which are process-based rather than product-based, were implemented in schools, the dilemma between training the students to score high in the examination and teaching life-long language skills can be resolved. The enrichment program must exist within any exam-oriented school curriculum in order to maintain studentsâ motivation and interest in learning ESL in Malaysia schools.

References

• Crookes, G., & Schmidt, R. W. (1991). Motivation: Reopening the Research Agenda. Language Learning, 41, 469-512. [EJ 435 997]
• Finocchiaro, M. (1982). Motivation: Its Crucial Role in Language Learning. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 223 3085).
• Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1972). Attitudes and Motivation in Second-Language Learning. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House Publishers.
• Gardner, R. C., & Tremblay, P.F. (1994). On Motivation, Research Agendas, and Theoretical Frameworks. Modern Language Journal, 78, 359-368. [EJ 497 731]
• Gaudart, H. (1997). Reaching Out to Learners: Creative Ideas for Teaching English. Shah Alam: Fajar Bakti.
• Krashen, S.D. (1987). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. New York: Prentice-Hall.
• Littlewood, W. (1995). Foreign and Second Language Learning. Cambridge:CUP.
• Ngeow, Karen Yeok-Hwa. (1998). Motivation and Transfer in Language Learning. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 427 318).
• Oxford, R., & Shearin, J. (1994). Language Learning Motivation: Expanding the Theoretical Framework. Modern Language Journal, 78, 12-28.

Appendix A

Framework for an Language Enrichment Program

---

The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VII, No. 5, May 2001
http://iteslj.org/

---

http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Hussin-Motivation/

Journal 4

The Internet TESL Journal

Storytelling in the EFL Speaking Classroom

Xu Jianing
Suzhou Industrial Park Institute of Vocational Technology (Jiangsu Province, China)
jianing61 {at} yahoo.com.cn

Introduction

As English becomes increasingly important in various fields such as business, finance, industry and education, most Chinese students hope they can speak English fluently. However, from my observations and many EFL teachers' descriptions of their oral English classrooms, a considerable number of students are not responding actively in speaking exercises. How to motivate the students in EFL speaking classrooms has long been our concern. First of all, it is necessary to find out the main factors affecting their participation.

What Factors Are Discouraging the Students?

The Students Are Nervous and Afraid of Making Mistakes.

In China, to get high scores in the Higher Education Exam is nearly the only goal of the high school students. For some reason, there is no oral English test in the Higher Education Exam; thus speaking skills are often neglected. More over, since there are usually over 50 students in each class, the students have little chance to practice speaking in class. This leads to the result that the speaking skills of most students are comparatively lower than other skills such as listening, reading and grammar.

Secondly, the fear of "losing face" prevents the students from speaking English (Zhu, 2003). Face is still of great importance to most Chinese. On the one hand, it motivates people to work hard to win face; on the other, people tend to conceal their mistakes and weaknesses for fear of losing face. For many English learners, they believe if they make mistakes or fail to find suitable words to express themselves, they will lose face. To protect themselves from being laughed at, they are reluctant to speak English. So there is the vicious circle: the less they speak, the less they improve their speaking skills, and the more they are afraid of speaking.

The Topics Are Not Interesting.

The dominating oral English teaching materials in China focus on situational or/and communicative function (Chen 2004), aiming to enable students to cope, in the target language, with typical situations in school and work environments as well as in ordinary life. When "practical" is the prime principle, what the learners do most in the speaking classroom is to make dialogues according to the given situations or topics. However, students often complain that they have been repeatedly asked to introduce their families or schools; talk about their hobbies or majors; make dialogues on topics such as job interviews, meeting visitors or shopping. These "practical" topics and situations provide little space for the students to imagine and create; therefore, dialogues on these situational topics are hard to develop in depth and width. People tend to lose interest in what they learn if they find they make little progress.

Another problem with this kind of topic-based speaking training is you can't expect all the listeners to be interested in your hobby or major. Moreover, the other students in the classroom are talking about similar things, which could hardly offer anything new to each other. Consequently, the audiences in the speaking classroom are not very attentive and the speakers just make a perfunctory effort instead of getting involved, not even to mention enjoying it. To many of them, the job is just a job.

The Classroom Atmosphere Is Not Encouraging.

The effect of classroom atmosphere on language learning, especially an oral class, is obvious and immediate. A free and light-hearted atmosphere promotes communications, while a nervous and stiff atmosphere builds invisible obstacles in communications. Dialogues about daily life and routine work lack variation, do not sound enchanting, and are unlikely to create an animated classroom atmosphere.

Feedback of the Listeners Is Not Supportive.

According to my observations in speaking classes, apart from the factors mentioned above, the listeners' feedback also has a strong influence on the performance of the speakers. Very often, at the beginning of the performance, the speakers are confident and active when doing some dialogues or role play exercises. However, when the audience loses interest in the speakers, begin to talk to each other or just do whatever else instead of listening attentatively to the speakers, the speakers tend to, consciously or unconsciously, speed up or cut down their words, trying to flee back to their own seats as quickly as they can (students are often asked to present in the front of the classroom and face the class in order to build better communications since there are usually 40 to 50 students in each class).  Even the slightest indifference or impatience indicated by the audience can be immediately felt by the speakers, which, in turn, greatly inhibits their passion to communicate. Of course, teachers can force the audiences to listen to the speakers but it is of no use blaming them. The most effective way is to offer the audiences something different and interesting!

Why Stories?

As we all know, stories have always played a significant role in children's growth. Stories not only help in stimulating children's imagination and understanding of the world, but also in developing children's language ability and appreciating literature (Aiex, 1988; Cooper, 1989; Koki, 1998; Zobairi & Gulley, 1989). It is just as Wright wrote, "Stories which rely so much on words, offer a major and constant source of language experience for children" (Wright, 1995).

The primary reason to recommend storytelling in the EFL speaking classroom is that stories are motivating and immensely interesting, can best attract listeners and promote communication. "The excitement and drama of storytelling provide a context that holds students' attention." (Cooter, 1991; Bla, 1998).

Secondly, stories are an enormous language treasure. For hundreds of years, thousands of stories have been created and passed down. Many old stories are regarded as the models of language and treasures of the culture, from which learners at various language levels and age groups can find suitable stories to read and tell. It would be a waste and pity if they are neglected in the course of EFL/ESL. In addition, stories are easily accessible; storybooks can be found in bookstores and borrowed from libraries or friends. Today, the most convenient and quickest way to find stories is from the Internet. “Storytelling …… costs nothing, is enjoyable, and can be used anywhere and at any time” (Zabel, 1991).

Thirdly, the lively atmosphere and real life environment created by stories encourages the students to talk and discuss with each other. When telling and listening to a story, the learners will easily be plunged into the plots and the scene and forget about themselves, which will, to a great degree, relieve their nervousness. Colon-vila (1997) also commented that storytelling helps EFL learners become more self-confident to express themselves spontaneously and creatively. However, teachers have not been zealous to use it in the classroom (Alvey, 1977).

Some students say that they have no time to meet with their partners and practice dialogues when they fail to do it well. Though sometimes it is just an excuse, nevertheless, storytelling helps solve the problem: partners are not indispensable to practice storytelling though it is better to have an audience.

To Whom to Use Stories?

Stories are often connected with children. In fact, they are not only loyal listeners; they also like to tell stories. The language classroom is just the place for children to share stories and show their language abilities. In China, there are various kinds of storytelling competitions in kindergartens and schools, attracting many children to participate. As long as the teacher gives proper instruction, children would be very pleased to learn storytelling in English. Besides, many stories can be adopted into short plays and children enjoy performing.

It should also be pointed out that stories are not only for children.  There are many stories for EFL learners of different levels and ages. I have tried using stories in college English classrooms and found that even the poorest storyteller can be the center of attention.

How to Use Stories?

The following are just a few examples of using stories in the EFL speaking classroom arranged in the order of difficulty. At first, if the students are not confident in their speaking skills, it is recommended that the students be given enough time to prepare. As the students build their confidence and the classroom language environment becomes more free and active, the teacher could gradually increase the difficulty and make the game more versatile. To motivate and encourage the students, points and prizes are granted to good tellers and groups each time.

Warming Up

The students listen to some stories downloaded from the Internet and repeat as they listen. This gives them an opportunity to improve their pronunciation, stress and intonation. They are offered three stories each time and required to practice the one they like best. A competition is held every two weeks. When every student has learned to tell three to five stories naturally and expressively, they feel much more confident in telling stories in English than before.

Activity 1

Divide the students into groups and each group prepares a story. Each member of the group tells two to three sentences and the next one continues until the end of the story. The length of the story could gradually increase from two or three minutes to four or five minutes. Before the lesson, the students could divide their tasks in advance and practice their own parts. They could also be given a few minutes to practice in class the whole story if necessary. The teacher moves among the groups and chooses two or three groups to present their stories before the class. Because the students have enough time to prepare and they are working together, this helps them build confidence and create a lively and brisk atmosphere.

Activity 2

Ask each student to prepare a story (about two minutes long) in advance. Divide the students into groups with four to five members in each group and ask them to tell his/her story in the group. The best storytellers in each group win ten points and compete for the best storyteller of the class. The winner wins another ten points for each member of his/her group and the second best wins eight points and so on. Since the performance of each representative is connected to the score of everyone, the students will be greatly involved in the whole process and listen to the stories attentatively, which will in turn promote the performance of the storytellers.

To avoid the few best storytellers dominating the activity, the best storytellers will be arranged in the same group next time. They will have to work harder in order to win again. This will make the winners stronger and at the same time, increase the opportunities of others and promote the whole class participation.

Activity 3

Divide the students into four to five groups and each group is given an opening of a story and asked to finish the story in about 20 minutes. Then select one student from each group to tell their story in the class and the best one wins 10 points for their group.

To get everyone fully involved and avoid the liability that each group just asks their best storyteller to do the job, the storytellers are selected by drawing lots instead of being chosen by themselves. This also helps enliven the atmosphere of the classroom. So each group must work together to make the story as interesting as they can. An alternative way is to ask each member of the group to tell a part of the story and make a whole.

Activity 4

Ask each group to hand in an incomplete story and redistribute them among the groups. Give the students 20 minutes to read their stories and finish them. After each group presents their story, compare it with the original one. The most interesting one and the one closest to the original win.

Activity 5

The teacher gives the first sentence to the class and then each student adds one more sentence to make a whole story impromptu. Because there is no preparation and no body has any idea about what the next person will say and where the story is going, there are often lots of fun and surprises in the game.
  
This game is suitable to the classes with no more than 20 students. If there are too many students, the students will wait too long to make his/her sentence, which is likely to make the game sluggish; also, the students may not hear each other clearly and this will reduce the success of the game.

In the process of using stories, the teacher could, in different cases, choose to encourage the students to rewrite the stories, using their own language or ask them to keep the original language as much as they can. The former way encourages the students to understand the stories and adds their own characteristics to the stories and the latter prompts them to learn to use new words and expressions. Besides, pictures, movies and other materials would also be great help in storytelling. After a few months, the students’ speaking ability can be improved to considerable degree.

Conclusion

There are many ways to use stories in the oral English classroom. It is also advised to encourage the students to find more interesting stories and create different ways to use them. Besides, in the course of looking for, rewriting and completing stories, their reading, writing and imagination can be further developed; teamwork and friendship will become stronger by working in groups. So let stories be a member of your oral English class!

References  

• Aiex, N. K. (1998). Storytelling : Its wide-Ranging Impact in the Classroom. [ED: 299 574]. Alvey, R.G. (1974). The Historical Development of Organized Storytelling to Children in the United States. Phd Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.
• Chen, Xiaohua. (2004). Sun Yatsen University Forum, Vol.24 No.5
• Colon-vila, L. (1997). Storytelling in the ESL Classroom. Teaching K-8, 58-59.
• Cooter, 1991 in Adventures with Words, Black, 1998.
• Cooper, P. (1989). Using storytelling to teach oral communication competencies K-12. Paper presents in the Annual Meeting of the Speech Communication. Association (75#, San Francisco, CA). [ED: 314 798]
• Koki, Stan. (1998). Storytelling: the heart and soul of education. [ED: 426 398].
• Wright, A. (1995). Storytelling with children. Oxford University Press.    
• Zable, M.K. (1991). Storytelling, Myths, and Folk Tales: Strategies for Multicultural Inclusion. Preventing School Failure, v36, nl, 32-34.
• Zobairi, N. & Gulley, B. (1989). The told tale: Oral storytelling and the young children. [ED: 319 517]
• Zhu, Hua. (2003). Journal of Liaoning Educational Administration Institute, Vol.20 No.9

---

The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. XIII, No. 11, November 2007
http://iteslj.org/

---

http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Jianing-Storytelling.html

Journal 3

Promoting Learners' Speaking Ability by Socioaffective Strategies

Chou, Yen-Lin
yenlinch [at] usc.edu
The University of Southern California (Los Angeles, California, USA)

This paper aims to point out the efficiency of socioaffective strategies on Asian students' speaking competence. This paper outlines the level of strategy use by language learners and particularly emphasizes on the use of socioaffective strategies that language learners frequently overlook. By adapting the five phases of the CALLA instructional sequence (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994; Chamot et al., 1999, as cited in Chamot, 1999), the paper illustrates a useful way for language learners (especially Asian learners) and teachers to know how to make good use of soicoaffective strategies in promoting speaking ability.

Introduction

Language learning strategies are broadly conceptualized as cognitive, metacognitive, and socioaffective strategies (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990; Oxford, 1990). Students consciously or unconsciously employ language learning strategies in language learning. Nevertheless, a number of research studies (Chamot & Küpper, 1989; Goh & Kwah, 1997) have discovered that students rarely utilize socioaffective strategies. These studies provide the evidence that learners overlook the efficiency of socioaffective strategies (Chamot & Küpper, 1989; Goh & Kwah, 1997).

All too often, language learners neglect the effectiveness of socioaffective strategies. Therefore, the integration of socioaffective strategies into classes should be taken into serious consideration. The paper stresses on those following issues:

• What effective applications can language teachers integrate socioaffective strategies into classes in order to promote Asian students' speaking ability?
• What useful implications can language learners and teachers employ when using language learning strategies in language learning?

The Efficiency of Socioaffective Strategies for Asian Students in the ESL Environment

Learning how to speak English fluently and accurately is always a grand task for Asian students who study abroad. Due to the significance of interaction between the instructor and students, students and students at U.S. education institutions, speaking competence can hardly be overvalued. However, because of the limitation of speaking competence and the influence by Confucianism, some Asian students are not inclined to express opinions in class; some appear conservative and uncomfortable, and seldom ask questions that they do not understand (Brice & Roseberry-Mackibbin, 1999; Lim, 2003). In other words, "influenced by Confucianism, students tend to value quietness, and be less opinioned" (Lim, 2003, p.1). Commonly, they rarely ask questions even though they do not understand the content that the instructor lectures, and they seldom express their own opinions (Lim, 2003). Lack of speaking competence prohibits the opportunities for Asian students to interact with the instructor and peers in the ESL classroom. Moreover, due to the difference between Asian and the United States' educational systems, Asian students are likely to express a conflict with peers and the instructor in the ESL classroom (Lacina, 2001).

Because the teaching and learning styles in the United States are student-centered, dynamic and lively way to learning and teaching, discussions and communications naturally occur in the classroom (Lacina, 2001). Without the target language speaking competence and strong motivation, Asian students have a propensity to talk to each other in their native language and murmur when encountering questions (Lim, 2003). These behaviors suggest Asian students have difficulties engaging in the classroom activities and discussions without the speaking competence and motivation. As a result, both language teachers and learners should take into account knowing how to use socioaffective strategies to advance learners' speaking ability and simultaneously help those learners actively engage in the classroom activities.

Researchers (O'Malley, Chamot, Stewner-Manzanares, Russo, & Küpper, 1989, as cited in Chamot, 1993) have studied the results of language learning strategies that were taught to English as a second language (ESL) learners in numerous different tasks, including vocabulary, listening, and speaking tasks. The outcomes of the studies reveal that language learning strategies are primarily of benefit for the speaking task (Chamot, 1993). It is patently attainable for learners to accomplish the goal of communicative competence in the target L2 by language learning strategies. Additionally, Bialystock (1978) recognizes that when learners communicate in the target L2, they can consciously apply language learning strategies in order to deal with the difficulties they encounter.

As commonly accepted, socioaffective strategies are the strategies that help learners regulate and control emotions, motivations, and attitudes towards learning, as well as help learners learn through contact and interaction with others (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990). For example, by means of soicoaffective strategies, language learners can lower anxiety by using some mental techniques and solve problems through teacher-student or peer interactions (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990). Therefore, socioaffective strategies can be regarded as a useful approach for Asian learners to accelerate their speaking competence and vigorously interact with native speakers and instructors in the ESL classroom.

Various researchers have devoted themselves to identifying the strategies used by students. Some Researchers (Chamot & Küpper, 1989) assert that the cognitive strategies are the most frequently used strategy. Meanwhile, learners apply far fewer metacognitive than cognitive strategies, and seldom employ socioaffective strategies. Some researchers (Goh & Kwah, 1997) report high use of metacognitive strategies and low use of socioaffective strategies; in other word, students regularly employ metacognitive strategies in language learning and rarely utilize socioaffective strategies. The previous research studies have shown a consistent perspective that language learners tend not to use socioaffective strategies in language learning.

Those previous research studies tell us that language learners are apt to use confined learning strategies and socioaffective strategies are frequently overlooked by learners. Consequently, the paper aims to provide Asian students and language teachers with an effective way to successfully promote speaking competence by means of socioaffective strategies.

Applications and Recommendations for Language Teachers and Learners

In order to help students recognize the power of socioaffective strategies, assist Asian students to improve their speaking competence, and stimulate Asian students' motivation to master their speaking competence, educators can constantly carry out the strategy research and integrate socioaffective strategies into class (Kinoshita, 2003). There are five phases that the teacher and learners can follow (adapted from the five phases of the CALLA instructional sequence, Chamot & O'Malley, 1994; Chamot et al., 1999, as cited in Chamot, 1999).

 Firstly, the teacher needs to diagnose learners' level of strategy use. The Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL, Oxford, 1990, p.293-300) questionnaire can be utilized to determine learners' use of language learning strategies because questionnaires are "cost-effective and easy to administer" (McDonough, 2001, p.2).  In these previous research studies, the results show that students seldom use socioaffective strategies. Therefore, the particular attention is needed for the teacher to notice whether learners neglect of utilizing socioaffective strategies.

Secondly, the teacher can offer learners knowledge to know the characteristics, effectiveness, and applications of socioaffective strategies. In this stage, it is essential for the teacher to present each strategy with a specific explanation and help learners know how to use each strategy in a given situation (Chamot, 1999). For example, the teacher can teach learners to try to relax when they are afraid of speaking English. Meanwhile, the teacher is supposed to "weave strategy into regular classroom events in a natural, and comfortable way" (Oxford, 1996, p.39, as cited in McDonough, 2001) and create the supportive and encouraging environment for language learners.

Thirdly, in order to offer hands-on practice for Asian students to use socioaffective strategies, collaborative works with classmates are effective in this phase (Chamot, 1999). The teacher assigns students into several small groups consisting of at least one native speaker. Learners in each group can exchange opinions of different cultures, share their learning experiences, as well as complete a certain task. Another application in this stage is to encourage Asian students to have an individual meeting with the teacher. During the meeting, the teacher can have relaxed conversations with Asian students and try to understand the difficulties they encounter while studying abroad. The teacher provides opportunities for Asian students to express their feelings in English and to practice their English-speaking skills that are the powerful ways in which to accomplish the use of socioaffective strategies.

Fourthly, giving Asian students chances to evaluate the usefulness of socioaffective strategies is critical in this phase (Chamot, 1999). The teacher can apply group or individual interviews, questionnaire, and open-ended questions for Asian learners to express their feelings towards using socioaffective strategies (Chamot, 1999). For example, the teacher can ask Asian learners "Do you think talking to native speakers can improve your English speaking competence?" Therefore, both students and the teacher can evaluate whether socioaffective strategies affirmatively influence Asian students' speaking competence and motivation or not.

Finally, the optimal goal of language learning strategies is to guide students to become better, autonomous, and confident learners (Chamot, 1999). In order to encourage students to depend more on themselves instead of the teacher, the teacher needs to ask students to use those effective socioaffective strategies in the classroom contexts and in daily life as well. Obviously, it takes time for learners to know how to successfully incorporate socioaffective strategies in language learning. Language teachers need to give language learning strategy instruction patiently, and learners are required to use the strategy consistently. It is hoped that learners can utilize socioaffective strategies whenever they speak English even without the teachers' supervision.

Implications for Language Teachers and Learners

First, a practical implication is that Asian students are supposed to know how to use a wide variety of language learning strategies, as well as understand how to use language learning strategies flexibly. Language learners tend to use confined and fixed language learning strategies (Fedderholdt, 1998). In language learning, it is indispensable for learners to reflect on their own learning process, and habitually estimate whether the use of language learning strategies is effective for improving their language proficiency or not (Fedderholdt, 1998). From previous research studies (Chamot & Küpper, 1989; Goh & Kwah, 1997), it is undoubted that learners overlook the efficiency of socioaffective strategies. Consequently, language learners are supposed to put particular attention to noticing whether they disregard the use of socioaffective strategies. Meanwhile, language teachers should concentrate on integrating language learning strategy training in class and explain the effectiveness of each strategy (Chamot, 1999). Every student has potential to become a successful learner and achieve the success of language tasks when obtaining the knowledge of acting wisely in choosing which strategies to integrate.

Second, another implication is that applying language learning strategies in the language classrooms should be treated as a long-term instruction. There is no positive variation between learners' speaking competence and the use of socioaffective strategies in a short period of the treatment. The successful acquisition of the speaking competence can be achieved only on condition that language teachers give the strategy use instruction patiently, and learners employ socioaffective strategies continuously.

Finally yet importantly, special efforts should be concentrated on helping improve Asian students' motivation to learn English-speaking competence. Language teachers can provide Asian students with practical practice and reinforcement of the use of socioaffective strategies (Kinoshita, 2003), such as co-operating with classmates and teachers. These activities increase learners' motivation and efforts to master English-speaking competence. Language learners can integrate socioaffective strategies not only in the classroom contexts but also in everyday life (Chamot, 1999). Looking for opportunities to have conversations with native speakers, encouraging oneself with a reward when performing well in speaking English, and asking questions in English can effectively help learners to stimulate their motivation to master English-speaking competence.

Conclusion

For promoting English ability, receiving higher education, and developing the international perspectives, the population of Asian students has increased steadily in American colleges and universities recently. It is clear that Asian students bear much anxiety and pressure while studying abroad (Parr et al., 1992). According to plenty of research studies (Parr et al., 1992), international students with better language proficiency can adjust to the foreign environment more easily.  Therefore, how to advance learners' language proficiency has always been a major mission in the profession of TESOL. 

From this article, it is obvious that socioaffective strategies can be considered as an effective approach to accelerate Asian learners' speaking competence as well as their learning motivation. Both language teachers and learners are supposed to evaluate whether socioaffective strategies are being overlooked or not. Moreover, socioaffective strategies should be fully integrated into classroom contexts and everyday learning. Only when Asian students know who to make good use of socioaffective strategies in both the ESL classroom environment and everyday life can they improve the speaking competence and motivation.

References

• Bialystok, E. (1978). A theoretical model of second language learning. Language Learning, 28, 69-83.
• Brice, A. & Roseberry-Mckibbin, C. (1999). Turning frustration into success for English language learners. Educational Leadership, 56(7), 53-55.
• Chamot, A. & Küpper, L. (1989). Learning strategies in foreign language instruction. Foreign Language Annals, 22, 13-24.
• Chamot, A. (1993). Student responses to learning strategy instruction in the foreign language classroom. Foreign Language Annals, 26(3), 308-320.
• Chamot, A. (1999). Learning strategy instruction in the English classroom. Retrieved June 2, 1999, from http://langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/tlt/99/jun/chamot
• Fedderholdt, K. (1998). Using diaries to develop language learning strategies. Retrieved April 20, 1998 from http://langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/tlt/98/apr/
• Goh, C., & Kwah, P.F. (1997). Chinese ESL students' learning strategies: A look at frequency, proficiency and gender. Hong Kong Journal of Applied Linguistics, 2, 39-53.
• Kinoshita, C. (2003). Integrating language learning strategy instruction into ESL/EFL lessons. The Internet TESL Journal, 11(4), 1-6. Retrieved April 10, 2003, from http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Kinoshita-Strategy.html
• Lacina, J. (2001). Cultural kickboxing in the ESL classroom: Encouraging active participation. The Internet TESL Journal, 7(10), 1-3. Retrieved October 6, 2001, from http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Lacina-Kickboxing
• Lim, H.Y. (2003). Successful classroom discussions with adult Korean ESL/FL learners. The Internet TESL Journal, 11(5), 1-3. Retrieved May 12, 2003, from http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Lim-AdultKoreans.html
• McDonough, K. (2001). Promoting self-regulation in foreign language learners. Clearing House, 74(6), 323-326.
• O'Malley, M. & Chamot, A. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
• Parr, G., Bradley, L., & Bingi, R. (1992). Concerns and feelings of international students. Journal of College Student Development, 33, 20-25.

---

The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. X, No. 9, September 2004
http://iteslj.org/

---

http://iteslj.org/Articles/Chou-Socioaffective.html

Journal 2

eaching Speaking: Activities to Promote Speaking in a Second Language 

Hayriye Kayi
http://unr.edu/homepage/hayriyek
kayih[at]unr.nevada.edu
University of Nevada (Nevada,USA)

Introduction

Speaking is "the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, in a variety of contexts" (Chaney, 1998, p. 13). Speaking is a crucial part of second language learning and teaching. Despite its importance, for many years, teaching speaking has been undervalued and English language teachers have continued to teach speaking just as a repetition of drills or memorization of dialogues. However, today's world requires that the goal of teaching speaking should improve students' communicative skills, because, only in that way, students can express themselves and learn how to follow the social and cultural rules appropriate in each communicative circumstance. In order to teach second language learners how to speak in the best way possible, some speaking activities are provided below, that can be applied to ESL and EFL classroom settings, together with suggestions for teachers who teach oral language.

What  Is "Teaching Speaking"?

What is meant by "teaching speaking" is to teach ESL learners to:

• Produce the English speech sounds and sound patterns
• Use word and sentence stress, intonation patterns and the rhythm of the second language.
• Select appropriate words and sentences according to the proper social setting, audience, situation and subject matter.
• Organize their thoughts in a meaningful and logical sequence.
• Use language as a means of expressing values and judgments.
• Use the language quickly and confidently with few unnatural pauses, which is called as fluency. (Nunan, 2003)

How To Teach Speaking

Now many linguistics and ESL teachers agree on that students learn to speak in the second language by "interacting". Communicative language teaching and collaborative learning serve best for this aim.  Communicative language teaching is based on real-life situations that require communication. By using this method in ESL classes, students will have the opportunity of communicating with each other in the target language.  In brief, ESL teachers should create a classroom environment where students have real-life communication, authentic activities, and meaningful tasks that promote oral language. This can occur when students collaborate in groups to achieve a goal or to complete a task.

Activities To Promote Speaking

Discussions

After a content-based lesson, a discussion can be held for various reasons. The students may aim to arrive at a conclusion, share ideas about an event, or find solutions in their discussion groups. Before the discussion, it is essential that the purpose of the discussion activity is set by the teacher. In this way, the discussion points are relevant to this purpose, so that students do not spend their time chatting with each other about irrelevant things. For example, students can become involved in agree/disagree discussions. In this type of discussions, the teacher can form groups of students, preferably 4 or 5 in each group, and provide controversial sentences like “people learn best when they read vs. people learn best when they travel”. Then each group works on their topic for a given time period, and presents their opinions to the class. It is essential that the speaking should be equally divided among group members. At the end, the class decides on the winning group who defended the idea in the best way. This activity fosters critical thinking and quick decision making, and students learn how to express and justify themselves in polite ways while disagreeing with the others. For efficient group discussions, it is always better not to form large groups, because quiet students may avoid contributing in large groups. The group members can be either assigned by the teacher or the students may determine it by themselves, but groups should be rearranged in every discussion activity so that students can work with various people and learn to be open to different ideas. Lastly, in class or group discussions, whatever the aim is, the students should always be encouraged to ask questions, paraphrase ideas, express support, check for clarification, and so on.

Role Play

One other way of getting students to speak is role-playing. Students pretend they are in various social contexts and have a variety of social roles. In role-play activities, the teacher gives information to the learners such as who they are and what they think or feel. Thus, the teacher can tell the student that "You are David, you go to the doctor and tell him what happened last night, and…" (Harmer, 1984)

Simulations

Simulations are very similar to role-plays but what makes simulations different than role plays is that they are more elaborate. In simulations, students can bring items to the class to create a realistic environment. For instance, if a student is acting as a singer, she brings a microphone to sing and so on. Role plays and simulations have many advantages. First, since they are entertaining, they motivate the students. Second, as Harmer (1984) suggests, they increase the self-confidence of hesitant students, because in role play and simulation activities, they will have a different role and do not have to speak for themselves, which means they do not have to take the same responsibility.

Information Gap

In this activity, students are supposed to be working in pairs. One student will have the information that other partner does not have and the partners will share their information. Information gap activities serve many purposes such as solving a problem or collecting information.  Also, each partner plays an important role because the task cannot be completed if the partners do not provide the information the others need. These activities are effective because everybody has the opportunity to talk extensively in the target language.

Brainstorming

On a given topic, students can produce ideas in a limited time. Depending on the context, either individual or group brainstorming is effective and learners generate ideas quickly and freely. The good characteristics of brainstorming is that the students are not criticized for their ideas so students will be open to sharing new ideas.

Storytelling

Students can briefly summarize a tale or story they heard from somebody beforehand, or they may create their own stories to tell their classmates. Story telling fosters creative thinking. It also helps students express ideas in the format of beginning, development, and ending, including the characters and setting a story has to have. Students also can tell riddles or jokes. For instance, at the very beginning of each class session, the teacher may call a few students to tell short riddles or jokes as an opening. In this way, not only will the teacher address students’ speaking ability, but also get the attention of the class.

Interviews

Students can conduct interviews on selected topics with various people. It is a good idea that the teacher provides a rubric to students so that they know what type of questions they can ask or what path to follow, but students should prepare their own interview questions. Conducting interviews with people gives students a chance to practice their speaking ability not only in class but also outside and helps them becoming socialized. After interviews, each student can present his or her study to the class. Moreover, students can interview each other and "introduce" his or her partner to the class.

Story Completion

This is a very enjoyable, whole-class, free-speaking activity for which students sit in a circle. For this activity, a teacher starts to tell a story, but after a few sentences he or she stops narrating. Then, each student starts to narrate from the point where the previous one stopped. Each student is supposed to add from four to ten sentences. Students can add new characters, events, descriptions and so on.

Reporting

Before coming to class, students are asked to read a newspaper or magazine and, in class, they report to their friends what they find as the most interesting news. Students can also talk about whether they have experienced anything worth telling their friends in their daily lives before class.

Playing Cards

In this game, students should form groups of four. Each suit will represent a topic. For instance:

• Diamonds: Earning money
• Hearts: Love and relationships
• Spades: An unforgettable memory
• Clubs: Best teacher

Each student in a group will choose a card. Then, each student will write 4-5 questions about that topic to ask the other people in the group. For example:

If the topic "Diamonds: Earning Money" is selected, here are some possible questions:

• Is money important in your life? Why?
• What is the easiest way of earning money?
• What do you think about lottery? Etc.

However, the teacher should state at the very beginning of the activity that students are not allowed to prepare yes-no questions, because by saying yes or no students get little practice in spoken language production.  Rather, students ask open-ended questions to each other so that they reply in complete sentences.

Picture Narrating

This activity is based on several sequential pictures. Students are asked to tell the story taking place in the sequential pictures by paying attention to the criteria provided by the teacher as a rubric. Rubrics can include the vocabulary or structures they need to use while narrating.

Picture Describing

Another way to make use of pictures in a speaking activity is to give students just one picture and having them describe what it is in the picture. For this activity students can form groups and each group is given a different picture. Students discuss the picture with their groups, then a spokesperson for each group describes the picture to the whole class. This activity fosters the creativity and imagination of the learners as well as their public speaking skills.

Find the Difference

For this activity students can work in pairs and each couple is given two different pictures, for example, picture of boys playing football and another picture of girls playing tennis. Students in pairs discuss the similarities and/or differences in the pictures.

Suggestions  For Teachers in Teaching Speaking

Here are some suggestions for English language teachers while teaching oral language:

• Provide maximum opportunity to students to speak the target language by providing a rich environment that contains collaborative work, authentic materials and tasks, and shared knowledge.
• Try to involve each student in every speaking activity; for this aim, practice different ways of student participation.
• Reduce teacher speaking time in class while increasing student speaking time. Step back and observe students.
• Indicate positive signs when commenting on a student's response.
• Ask eliciting questions such as "What do you mean? How did you reach that conclusion?" in order to prompt students to speak more.
• Provide written feedback like "Your presentation was really great. It was a good job. I really appreciated your efforts in preparing the materials and efficient use of your voice…"
• Do not correct students' pronunciation mistakes very often while they are speaking. Correction should not distract student from his or her speech.
• Involve speaking activities not only in class but also out of class; contact parents and other people who can help.
• Circulate around classroom to ensure that students are on the right track and see whether they need your help while they work in groups or pairs.
• Provide the vocabulary beforehand that students need in speaking activities.
• Diagnose problems faced by students who have difficulty in expressing themselves in the target language and provide more opportunities to practice the spoken language.

Conclusion

Teaching speaking is a very important part of second language learning. The ability to communicate in a second language clearly and efficiently contributes to the success of the learner in school and success later in every phase of life. Therefore, it is essential that language teachers pay great attention to teaching speaking. Rather than leading students to pure memorization, providing a rich environment where meaningful communication takes place is desired. With this aim, various speaking activities such as those listed above can contribute a great deal to students in developing basic interactive skills necessary for life. These activities make students more active in the learning process and at the same time make their learning more meaningful and fun for them.

References

• Celce-Murcia. M. 2001. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (3rd ed). USA: Heinle&Heinle.
• Chaney, A.L., and T.L. Burk. 1998. Teaching Oral Communication in Grades K-8. Boston: Allyn&Bacon.
• Baruah, T.C. 1991. The English Teacher's Handbook. Delhi: Sterling Publishing House.
• Brown, G. and G. Yule. 1983. Teaching the Spoken Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Harmer, J. 1984. The Practice of English Language Teaching. London: Longman.
• McDonough, J. and C. Shaw. 2003. Materials and Methods in ELT: a teacher’s  guide. Malden, MA; Oxford: Blackwell.
• Nunan, D., 2003. Practical English Language Teaching. NY:McGraw-Hill.
• Staab, C. 1992. Oral language for today's classroom. Markham, ON: Pippin Publishing.

---

The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. XII, No. 11, November 2006
http://iteslj.org/

---

http://iteslj.org/Articles/Kayi-Teaching Speaking.html